Provisional government

A provisional government, also called an interim government, an emergency government, a transitional government or provisional leadership,^[1] is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse, revolution, civil war, or some combination thereof.

Provisional governments generally come to power in connection with a grave crisis that has caused the previous government to suddenly and irreversibly collapse, such as economic collapse, civil war, defeat in a foreign war, revolution, or the death of a long-serving authoritarian ruler. Questions of democratic transition and state-building are often fundamental to the formation and policies of such governments.

Provisional governments maintain power until a new government can be appointed by a regular political process, which is generally an election.^[2] They may be involved with defining the legal structure of subsequent regimes, guidelines related to human rights and political freedoms, the structure of the economy, government institutions, and international alignment.^[3]

Provisional governments differ from caretaker governments, which are responsible for governing within an established parliamentary system and serve temporarily after an election, vote of no confidence or cabinet crisis, until a new government can be appointed.^[3] Caretaker governments operate entirely within the existing constitutional framework and most countries tightly circumscribe their authority, in contrast to provisional governments, which often operate in the absence of any elected legislature and usually enjoy expansive, if temporary, powers.

In opinion of Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz, provisional governments can be classified to four groups:^[4]

Revolutionary provisional governments (when the former regime is overthrown and the power belongs to the people who have overthrown it).
Power sharing provisional governments (when the power is shared between former regime and the ones who are trying to change it).
Incumbent provisional governments (when the power during transitional period belongs to the former regime).
International provisional governments (when the power during the transitional period belongs to the international community).

The establishment of provisional governments is frequently tied to the implementation of transitional justice.^[5] Provisional governments may be responsible for implementing transitional justice measures as part of the path to establishing a permanent government structure.

The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule. Irregularly convened assemblies during the English Revolution, such as Confederate Ireland (1641–49), were described as "provisional". The Continental Congress, a convention of delegates from 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America became the provisional government of the United States in 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. The government shed its provisional status in 1781, following ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and continued in existence as the Congress of the Confederation until it was supplanted by the United States Congress in 1789.

The practice of using "provisional government" as part of a formal name can be traced to Talleyrand's government in France in 1814. In 1843, American pioneers in the Oregon Country, in the Pacific Northwest region of North America established the Provisional Government of Oregon—as the U.S. federal government had not yet extended its jurisdiction over the region—which existed until March 1849. The numerous provisional governments during the Revolutions of 1848 gave the word its modern meaning: A liberal government established to prepare for elections.

List of provisional governments

Numerous provisional governments have been established since the 1850s.

Africa

As of 2024, eight African countries currently have provisional governments: South Sudan, Libya, Sudan, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Gabon.

Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (1958–1962) (guerrilla movement)
The Derg (1974–1987), formed during the Ethiopian Civil War following the overthrow of emperor Haile Selassie. Ultimately absorbed into the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979–1980), a short-lived yet internationally unrecognized sovereign state formed in the waning years of the Rhodesian Bush War, in contrast with the reestablished Southern Rhodesia. Ultimately dissolved in favor of granting independence to Southern Rhodesia as Zimbabwe.
Transitional Government of National Unity (Namibia) (1985–1989), interim government during the end of the South African Border War
Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1991–1995), established after the end of the Ethiopian Civil War
Interim Government of Somalia (1991–1997), established after the collapse of the Somali Democratic Republic and the onset of the Somali Civil War.
Provisional Government of Eritrea (1993), established after independence from Ethiopia
Transitional National Government of Somalia (2000–2004), established at the Somalia National Peace Conference in opposition to the Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council, formed by rival political factions. Succeeded by the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia.
Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2003–2006), established in 2003 following the conclusion of the Second Congo War.
National Transitional Legislative Assembly of Liberia (2003–2006), Liberia's legislative body during the country's transition from civil war to democratic rule.
Transitional Federal Government of Somalia (2004–2012), established as the successor to the Transitional National Government of Somalia as part of an effort to end the Islamic Courts Union's rule over the nation. Dissolved following the ratification of a new constitution which declared Somalia an Islamic state.
High Transitional Authority (2009–2014), established following Marc Ravalomanana's overthrow and the end of the Third Republic of Madagascar during the 2009 Malagasy political crisis. Dissolved following the 2013 Malagasy general election, which established the Fourth Republic of Madagascar.
National Transitional Council of Libya (2011–2012), formed during the 2011 civil war in Libya against the Gaddafi-led government
Interim government of Egypt (2013–2014), established following the June 2013 Egyptian protests and subsequent coup
The UN-supported Government of National Unity In Libya (2021–present), formed following the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum in Sirte
Transitional Sovereignty Council (2019–2021, 2021–present), established in August 2019 after 8 month-long protests against President Bashir and a subsequent military coup.
Patriotic Movement for Safeguard and Restoration in Burkina Faso (2022–present), formed on 24 January 2022, the group took over after a coup in January. Its leader Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba suffered a coup himself later that year. Afterwards, Ibrahim Traoré took power as the leader of the military junta and interim president of Burkina Faso.
Transitional Military Council (2021–2022), formed in 2021 following the death of Chadian President Idriss Déby
National Transitional Council in Chad (2022–2024), formed in 2022 to replace the Transitional Military Council
National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland (CNSP) (2023–present)
Committee for the Transition and Restoration of Institutions (2023–present)

Americas

As of 2024 in the Americas, only Haiti has a provisional government.

Continental Congress (1776–1781), interim ruling body of the United States after declaring independence from the British Empire. Following the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, the Continental Congress was absorbed into the Congress of the Confederation, which subsequently became the United States Congress upon ratification of the Constitution.
Primera Junta (1810), interim ruling body of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata following Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros' resignation during the May Revolution. Succeeded by the Junta Grande after seven months in power.
Junta Grande (1810–1811), successor to the Primera Junta. Aimed to facilitate the transition to a junta that represented all cities in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, only to meet limited recognition within its own territory. Succeeded by the First Triumvirate.
Government Junta of Chile (1810), interim government of Chile following the deposition and imprisonment of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by Napoleon.
Provisional Government of Mexico (1823–1824), interim ruling body of Mexico following the dissolution of the First Mexican Empire. Succeeded by the First Mexican Republic following the ratification of the 1824 Constitution.
Provisional governorship of José Rondeau (1828–1830), interim ruling body of Uruguay following the Preliminary Peace Convention, in which the Empire of Brazil and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata recognized the country's independence. Dissolved following Rondeau's resignation.
Texian Consultation (1835–1836), interim ruling body of Mexican Texas during the Texas Revolution. Ultimately collapsed due to political tensions following the Matamoros Expedition.
U.S. provisional government of New Mexico (1846–1850), interim ruling body of New Mexico following the region's occupation by the United States during the Mexican–American War. Succeeded by the New Mexico Territory in 1850 before being admitted to the Union as the 47th state in 1912.
Provisional Congress of the Confederate States (1861–1862), interim ruling body of the Confederate States of America following the member states' secession from the United States of America. Dissolved following the election and inauguration of Jefferson Davis as President of the Confederate States of America.
Missouri Constitutional Convention of 1861–1863, formed as a constituent assembly to vote on whether or not to secede from the United States during the American Civil War before restructuring itself as a provisional state government following the outbreak of violence between pro-Union and pro-Confederacy factions.
Provisional Government of Saskatchewan (1885), formed by revolting Métis during the North-West Rebellion. Dissolved following Canada's victory in the Battle of Batoche.
Pentarchy of 1933, interim ruling body of Cuba following the deposition of Gerardo Machado. Ousted after five days in power by the Directorio Estudiantil Universitario, which appointed the One Hundred Days Government in their place.
One Hundred Days Government (1933–1934), interim ruling body of Cuba after the Pentarchy of 1933 was ousted by the Directorio Estudiantil Universitario. Overthrown in a military coup by Fulgencio Batista, who installed Carlos Mendieta as president of Cuba.
Government Junta of Bolivia (1946–1947), established following the ousting of Gualberto Villarroel and the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement in the 1946 La Paz riots. Dissolved following the election and inauguration of Enrique Hertzog as President of Bolivia.
People's Revolutionary Government (1979–1983), interim ruling body of Grenada following the New Jewel Movement's takeover of the government. Overthrown in the United States invasion of Grenada, which installed Nicholas Brathwaite as prime minister.
Junta of National Reconstruction (1979–1985), interim ruling body of Nicaragua after the overthrow of Anastasio Somoza Debayle during the Nicaraguan Revolution. Dissolved following the election and inauguration of Daniel Ortega as president.
National Council of Government (1986–1988), interim ruling body of Haiti, after the departure of Jean-Claude Duvalier.
Venezuelan transitional government (2019–2022), established in January 2019 by the National Assembly led by Juan Guaidó, currently in dispute with the incumbent government of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela led by Nicolás Maduro. The transitional government is supported and recognized by the United States, the European Union, the Lima Group, and many other Western countries.
Presidency of Francisco Sagasti (2020–2021), established on November 17, 2020, as a result of various political and economic hardships during the Peruvian political crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, including two presidential impeachments and one presidential resignation. Political analysts in Peru characterized the administration as a "transitional government" and an "emergency government,"^[6] which was eventually succeeded by the Bellido cabinet following the inauguration of Pedro Castillo on July 28, 2021.
Transitional Presidential Council (2024–present), established in April 2024 to exercise the powers and duties of the President of Haiti either until an elected president is inaugurated or until 7 February 2026. The council was officially sworn in as the head of state of Haiti following the resignation of acting president Ariel Henry on 24 April.

Asia

Judean provisional government (66–68), formed by rebelling Pharisees and Sadducees during the First Jewish–Roman War with the intent of establishing a Halachic state in Judea. Dissolved following the massacre of its members during the Zealot Temple siege.
Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898–1899), established in the Spanish East Indies
Tianjin Provisional Government (1900–1902), formed by the Eight-Nation Alliance to administer territory recaptured from the Boxer movement during the Boxer Rebellion. Dissolved after ceding control of the Tianjin area back to the Qing dynasty, though the Eight-Nation Alliance maintained a military presence to ensure open access to Beijing.
Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912), established after the success of the Wuchang uprising

World War I and Interbellum

Provisional Government of India (1915), government-in-exile based in Kabul, Afghanistan
Republic of Van (1915), established as a puppet government of the Russian Empire in occupied Western Armenia. Dissolved in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the February Revolution and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic's withdrawal from World War I.
Alash Orda (1917–1918), established as the interim governing body of the newly formed Alash Autonomy in opposition to rival Bolshevik councils aligned with Vladimir Lenin.
South West Caucasian Republic (1919), established in Kars
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (1919), established in exile based in Shanghai, China and later in Chongqing, during the Japanese occupation of Korea
Jewish National Council (1920–1948), established by the Assembly of Representatives in Mandatory Palestine as the main executive body of the entity's Jewish community. Succeeded by the provisional government of Israel after declaring independence in 1948.
Government of the Grand National Assembly (1920–1923), established as an alternative government to the Allied-occupied Ottoman Empire during the Turkish War of Independence

World War II

Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–40), established by the Empire of Japan after its invasion of Eastern China
Provisional Government of Free India (1943–1945), commonly known as Azad Hind, established by Indian nationalists in southeast Asia, had nominal sovereignty over Axis-controlled Indian territories, and had diplomatic relationships with eleven countries including Germany, Italy, Japan, Philippines, and the Soviet Union. It was headed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, who was the Head of the State and Prime Minister, who was also Supreme Commander of the Indian National Army. The government had its own cabinet and banks, and was the first government to recruit women for combat roles.

Cold War and aftermath

People's Republic of Korea (1945–1946), a provisional government established following the surrender of Japan at the conclusion of World War II, which resulted in the restoration of Korean independence. Following the division of Korea, the PRK was outlawed by the United States in favor of the American military government, while the Soviet Union incorporated it into the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea.
United States Army Military Government in Korea (1945–1948), an interim government formed by the United States concurrently with the People's Republic of Korea following the peninsula's independence from Japan. Later incorporated into South Korea following the division of Korea and the American ban on the People's Republic.
Provisional People's Committee of North Korea (1946–1947), an interim government formed by the Soviet Civil Administration following the division of Korea and the absorption of the People's Republic of Korea. Succeeded by the People's Committee of North Korea.
Interim Government of India (1946–1947), an interim government formed by the newly created Constituent Assembly of India to administer what would become the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan in the transitional period between British rule and independence.
People's Committee of North Korea (1947–1948), the successor government to the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea during the latter period of Soviet occupation. Ultimately incorporated into North Korea.
Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (1948–1949), an emergency government established by Sjafruddin Prawiranegara in Sumatra following the capture of Yogyakarta, the then-Indonesian capital, by the Netherlands.
Provisional government of Israel (1948–1949), successor to the Jewish National Council, established after Israel's declaration of independence and in place until after the first Knesset elections.
Provisional Central Government of Vietnam (1948–1949), established as a puppet government by French during the First Indochina War. Succeeded by the State of Vietnam.
Provisional Government of the Syrian Arab Republic (1949), established by national consensus to draft a new constitution and reintroduce civilian rule after a series of military governments.
State of Vietnam (1949–1955), formed as a successor to the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam during the First Indochina War. Succeeded by South Vietnam following the 1954 Geneva Conference, which ceded the northern half of the country to North Vietnam.
National Council for the Revolutionary Command (1963), interim ruling body of Syria following the 1963 Syrian coup d'état.
Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (1969–1976), established during the Vietnam War against the United States and Republic of Vietnam
Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (1970–1972), established after the declaration of freedom of Bengalis exiled to Calcutta.
Provisional Government of East Timor (1975–1976), established as a puppet state following the success of the Indonesian invasion of East Timor. Ultimately dissolved following the country's annexation as a province of Indonesia.
Interim Government of Iran, a provisional government established after the 1979 Iranian Revolution
Democratic Republic of Iran, formed in 1981 by the People's Mujahedin of Iran based in Paris and later Albania. It serves as the main Iranian government-in-exile opposing the clerical government.
Provisional Government of the Philippines (1986–1987), established after the People Power Revolution until the new constitution ratified
Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1988–present), after it was entrusted with the powers and responsibilities of the Provisional Government of the State of Palestine.^[7]^[8]
Republic of Kuwait (1990), established as a puppet state by Ba'athist Iraq during the Gulf War. Subsequently annexed and divided into the Kuwait Governorate and the Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District before Iraq's withdrawal at the end of the war.
United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (1992–1993)
Khmer Rouge unrecognized government (1994–1998), an opposition government formed by remnants of the Khmer Rouge following the establishment of the Kingdom of Cambodia and the withdrawal of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia. Dissolved due to widespread pro-peace sentiment among those left in the Khmer Rouge after the death of Pol Pot.
Palestinian National Authority (1994–present), the administrative organization, established to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, following the Oslo Accords.^[9]

21st century

As of 2024 in Asia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, the State of Palestine (detailed above), Syria, and Yemen currently have provisional governments. The Syrian provisional governments are opposition groups in rebellion against their internationally recognized government. Afghanistan's provisional government is unrecognized, but is de facto the country's sole governing body. Myanmar and Yemen have both ruling and opposition provisional governments.

Afghan Interim Administration (2001–2002), established following the overthrow of the first Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan during the War in Afghanistan. Succeeded by the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan.
Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (2002–2004), formed as the successor to the Afghan Interim Administration. Succeeded by the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan following the election and inauguration of the First Karzai cabinet.
Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq (2003–2004) with the Iraqi Interim Governing Council, established to act as a caretaker administration in Iraq following the 2003 invasion of Iraq pending the hand over of power to the Iraqi people and the creation of a democratically elected civilian government.
Iraqi Interim Government (2004–2005) and the Iraqi Transitional Government (2005–2006) were both provisional authorities established after the hand over of power to the Iraqi people following the 2003 invasion of Iraq to govern pending the adoption of a permanent constitution.
2006 Thai interim civilian government, established by the Council for National Security following the 2006 Thai coup d'état. Dissolved following the enacting of the 2007 constitution of Thailand.
Syrian Interim Government (2013–present), established by the Syrian National Coalition during the Syrian Civil War
Supreme Political Council of Yemen (2015–present), established by the Houthi Movement after the 2014–15 Yemeni coup d'état, currently participating in the Yemeni Civil War (2014–present) against the governments of Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi and the Presidential Leadership Council
Southern Transitional Council of South Yemen (2016–present), established by the Southern Movement - a separatist group in southern Yemen - during the Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)
Syrian Salvation Government (2017–present), established by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham in the Idlib Governorate^[10]
Interim government of Kyrgyzstan (2020–2021), established in 2020 in the aftermath of the 2020 Kyrgyzstani protests
National Unity Government of Myanmar (2021–present), established in exile by the Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw in opposition to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état^[11]
Provisional Government of Myanmar (2021–present), established by the State Administration Council as a formalization of its rule six months after the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état^[12]
Caretaker Cabinet of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (2021–present), established by the Taliban following the 2021 fall of Kabul^[13]^[14]
Presidential Leadership Council (2022–present), established by internationally recognized outgoing president Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi to seek a "comprehensive political solution" to the Yemeni Civil War^[15]^[16]
Israeli war cabinet (2023–2024), established following the outbreak of the Israel–Hamas war and Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu's declaration of a state of emergency. The war cabinet was later dissolved after former ministers Benny Gantz and Gadi Eisenkott left the coalition.
Bangladeshi interim government (2024–present), established following the resignation of prime minister Sheikh Hasina on 5 August 2024 due to widespread protests.^[17]

Europe

Confederate Ireland (1642–1652), formed by Catholic aristocrats, landed gentry, clergy, and military leaders after the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Overthrown by the Commonwealth of England in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.
National Convention (1792–1795), interim ruling body of the Kingdom of France and the French First Republic during the French Revolution. Succeeded by the French Directory following the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the drafting of a new constitution.
Provisional Representatives of the People of Holland (1795–1796), interim government of the Batavian Republic following the abolition of the Dutch Republic in the Batavian Revolution. Abolished following the States General of the Batavian Republic's replacement by the National Assembly.
First Hellenic Republic (1822–1832), established by anti-Ottoman rebels during the Greek War of Independence. Succeeded by the Kingdom of Greece following the assassination of Augustinos Kapodistrias and subsequent intervention by Great Britain, France and Russia.
Wellington caretaker ministry (1834), interim ruling body of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland following William IV's dismissal of William Lamb's administration. Arthur Wellesley recommended Robert Peel as Lamb's successor; because Peel was in the Kingdom of Sardinia at the time, Wellesley headed a caretaker administration until Peel's return to Britain.
Dictator Executive Commission in Warsaw and National Civil Government (1863), interim ruling bodies of Congress Poland during the January Uprising, formed as the successor to the underground Polish National Government. The coexisting provisional governments were both de jure ruled by Marian Langiewicz, whose arrest led to their dissolution in favor of a single coalition government.
Provisional Government of Spain (1868–1871), established after the Spanish Glorious Revolution pending the election of a new Constitutional Monarch.
Provisional Government of the Portuguese Republic (1910–1911), established in the aftermath of the Republican Revolution that overthrow the Portuguese monarchy.